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Passing Judgement
Good criticism is a great commodity. We welcome the considered opinion of others – we even pay people to tell
us what they think of our lifestyle, our dress, our eating habits. But, for some of us, the need to pass judgement on others goes far beyond a useful social skill.What is the main point argued in this text?
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Biofuel
Since 2003, there have been reports on a biofuel company that turned turkey guts, garbage and old tires into oil, which it sold to refineries for vehicle fuel or to electrical utilities to help power generators. Changing World Technologies’ method of thermal depolymerization used intense heat and pressure to break waste materials into desirable, short-chain hydrocarbons (much like the Earth’s super-slow, fossil fuel-producing process). As it turns out, the company’s production costs were too high to compete commercially. After only four years in operation, it filed for bankruptcy and shuttered its plant in 2009. “There can be disadvantages to being first,” says Robert Brown, a mechanical engineer at Iowa State University who works on biofuel development. Changing World Technologies’ radical approach was ultimately ahead of its time. Since then, several new start-ups have emerged, exploiting similar thermal processes, but focusing on simpler, better-understood plant- and fat-based biofuels instead.
What is said here about Changing World Technologies?
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A review of Romantic Outlaws: the Extraordinary Lives of Mary Wollstonecraft and Mary Shelley by Charlotte Gordon
This ingeniously constructed double biography tells the story of a mother and a daughter, two writers, who did not know each other. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759–1797), the author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, died of septicaemia ten days after giving birth to Mary Godwin, later best known as Mary Shelley (1797–1851), the author of the novel Frankenstein. Very different in character and interests – Wollstonecraft was more political, Shelley more scholarly – both women demanded a rare romantic and intellectual freedom that cost them dearly but pushed the boundaries of possibility for later generations.
Wollstonecraft was probably the greater pioneer of the two. Born the second of seven children to a drunken bully of a father and a passive mother, she felt keenly the absence of formal education for herself and her sisters, an injustice that inspired works such as Thoughts on the Education of Daughters and Vindication. A resourceful woman, she not only earned her own living from a young age but cared for her younger sisters for long periods of time.
Mary Shelley had potentially more stable beginnings, as a daughter of Wollstonecraft’s grieving husband, the philosopher William Godwin, the author of Enquiry Concerning Political Justice. Thanks to her father, the young Mary received a better education than did many of her male peers. Yet her dead and already notorious mother haunted her. Throughout her life, she read and reread Wollstonecraft’s work.
The profound perils of sex, romance and motherhood resonate throughout these pages. Wollstonecraft travelled alone to revolutionary Paris, at first enthralled, later horrified and threatened by Robespierre’s reign of terror. Here, she fell in love with a charismatic American adventurer, Gilbert Imlay, and became pregnant with her first daughter, Fanny. As a lone mother, she was a social outcast but went on to publish one of her greatest works, Letters Written in Sweden, Norway and Denmark.
Her daughter also suffered as both a lover and a mother. After Mary eloped with the poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, aged 16, William Godwin mysteriously cut her off for many years. The young couple lived in a kind of personal and artistic idyll in Italy for several years, but the deaths of three of their four children precipitated spells of disabling depression in Mary and sparked Percy’s serial infatuation with other women. Mary’s stepsister Claire, who had a daughter with Lord Byron, wrote at the end of her life that the great Romantic experiment in free love had benefited only the men and crushed the women.
Both women’s stories are full of enriching paradox. Wollstonecraft, an ardent advocate of independence and freedom, was often a dependent and desperate lover but was able, eventually, to find happiness with Godwin, whom Gordon portrays as pernickety but passionate, brave but rather unkind. Mary Shelley was a highly gifted writer but, after her husband’s premature death by drowning, a large part of her life was devoted to consolidating his literary reputation. Both women endured lengthy periods of depression, yet somehow always found a way to carry on writing.
Neither woman’s literary achievements were recognised during the 19th century, such was the whiff of personal scandal that still clung to their names. Wollstonecraft was not helped by William Godwin’s decision, possibly for financial reasons, to rush out an ill-judged, partial and overly personal memoir of her soon after her death. And it was not until Muriel Spark’s critical biography of Mary Shelley, published in 1951, claiming her as the founder of modern science fiction and a greater novelist than had previously been recognised, that interest in her writing revived. Second-wave feminist scholars finally rehabilitated the work and life of Wollstonecraft.
Charlotte Gordon has managed to produce that rare thing, a work of genuinely popular history. Her weaving together of two lives – alternating short chronological slices, so that mother and daughter age together, despite the decades that separate them – works beautifully.
Melissa Benn, New Statesman
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What can be concluded about Mary Wollstonecraft and Mary Shelley from the opening paragraph?
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Which statement is most in line with the text?
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Which of the following statements about Wollstonecraft is most in agreement with the text?
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What are we told about Wollstonecraft as a person?
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What is claimed in connection with Wollstonecraft’s and Shelley’s writings?
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Ghosts
Our interest in ghosts is imperishable; a UK survey has found that more people believe in ghosts than in God. Some have suggested that haunted places have ‘psychometric imprints’ – that previous traumatic events that took place there have left an indelible impression – and it’s also said that older, denser materials such as granite are better ‘conductors’ of the imprint, thus explaining spirits’ penchant for castles. Others have more prosaic theories. For instance, a computer expert who worked in a ‘haunted’ laboratory traced the cause of the cold sweats and visions of grey figures experienced by his fellow workers to the physiological effects of the lowfrequency vibrations of an extractor fan.
What can be concluded from this text?
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Rocket Science
Rockets are spectacular examples of Isaac Newton’s third law of motion: that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. For instance, throwing hot gas out of its engines at high speed (the action) thrusts a rocket off its launch pad and into space (the reaction). But having to carry the propellants needed to create the gas (the reaction mass) is a pain, for at any given moment during a flight, the action has to propel not only the rocket itself, but also all of the remaining, unburnt propellant. Most of the effort expended in a rocket launch is therefore directed towards lifting propellant. As a result, even the most modern rockets start off with a mass that is more than 90% propellant. The unrealistic fantasy of rocket scientists is therefore an engine that needs no propellant. And that is precisely what Roger Shawyer, a British aerospace engineer, claims to have invented.
What is implied in this text?
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Julius Caesar
Rockets are spectacular examples of Isaac Newton’s third law of motion: that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. For instance, throwing hot gas out of its engines at high speed (the action) thrusts a rocket off its launch pad and into space (the reaction). But having to carry the propellants needed to create the gas (the reaction mass) is a pain, for at any given moment during a flight, the action has to propel not only the rocket itself, but also all of the remaining, unburnt propellant. Most of the effort expended in a rocket launch is therefore directed towards lifting propellant. As a result, even the most modern rockets start off with a mass that is more than 90% propellant. The unrealistic fantasy of rocket scientists is therefore an engine that needs no propellant. And that is precisely what Roger Shawyer, a British aerospace engineer, claims to have invented.
What are we told about Julius Caesar?
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